History of Angola

Angola, a nation on the southwestern coast of Africa, possesses a complex and often turbulent history that spans millennia. Shaped by the migrations of ancient peoples, the rise and fall of powerful pre-colonial kingdoms, the brutal realities of the transatlantic slave trade, centuries of Portuguese colonialism, a protracted war of independence, and a devastating post-independence civil war, the trajectory of Angola is one of resilience, exploitation, and the enduring struggle for self-determination.

1. History of Angola Pre-Colonial  (Before 1483)

The territory that constitutes modern Angola was inhabited by various groups long before the arrival of Europeans. Its earliest occupants were Khoisan hunter-gatherers, but the profound shift came with the influx of Bantu-speaking peoples from the north and east.

The Bantu Migrations and Early Societies

Beginning around the 6th century AD, the Bantu migrations introduced metal-working technology, ceramics, and advanced agriculture to the region. These groups displaced or assimilated the earlier Khoisan populations. They established lineage-based villages, which eventually grew into complex, centralized political entities. The diverse ecological zones, ranging from the Congo Basin’s rainforests to the central highlands and the arid south, contributed to the development of distinct cultures and kingdoms.  

The Kingdom of Kongo (c. 1390 – 1914)

The most influential and well-documented of these polities was the Kingdom of Kongo , which emerged in the 14th century, centered in the north, extending into modern-day Republic of Congo, DRC, and northern Angola.

• • Foundation and Structure: Founded, according to tradition, by Nimi a Lukeni, the kingdom was highly centralized under a divine king, the ManiKongo. Its capital, Mbanza Kongo (later São Salvador), was a major urban center.  

• • Economy and Trade: The kingdom possessed a sophisticated economy based on agriculture, copper mining, and an extensive trade network that used the nzimbu shell as a standardized currency. They traded commodities like raffia cloth, ivory, copper, and pottery across disparate ecological zones.  

• • Early Contact with Portugal: This powerful state was the first to encounter the Portuguese. The arrival of explorer Diogo Cão in 1483 marked the beginning of a centuries-long, transformative, and ultimately destructive relationship.

The Southern Kingdoms: Ndongo and Matamba

South of the Kongo lay other significant Mbundu-speaking states, most notably Ndongo and Matamba, from which the name “Angola” itself is derived (from the title of the Ndongo ruler, the Ngola a Kiluanje).  

• • The Kingdom of Ndongo: Flourishing in the Malanje highlands between the Kwanza and Lukala rivers, Ndongo was initially smaller than Kongo but grew in power, utilizing the iron-rich regions for its economy. It was this kingdom that became the primary target of Portuguese expansion once their interest shifted from diplomacy and trade with Kongo to outright territorial control and the massive-scale slave trade.  

• • The Kingdom of Matamba: To the east of Ndongo, Matamba became famous as the base of Queen Nzinga Mbande (Njinga), a remarkable 17th-century figure who fiercely resisted the Portuguese. She led both Ndongo and Matamba, demonstrating exceptional political and military skill, first negotiating peace with the Portuguese, then forging alliances with the Dutch, and finally establishing a powerful new state in Matamba that controlled the lucrative trade routes into the interior.  

2. Portuguese Colonization and the Transatlantic Slave Trade (1483 – 1836)

The Portuguese presence in Angola fundamentally altered the History of Angola of the region. What began as a diplomatic mission quickly devolved into an economic enterprise focused almost exclusively on the transatlantic slave trade.

The Founding of Luanda and the Slave Economy

The relationship with the Kingdom of Kongo was initially one of mutual respect, but as Portuguese demand for labor on their São Tomé sugar plantations and, later, the vast plantations of Brazil grew, the focus shifted to acquiring slaves.  

• • 1575: Founding of Luanda: The Portuguese explorer Paulo Dias de Novais founded São Paulo de Luanda (Luanda) south of the Kongo’s influence, with the explicit aim of securing a more reliable source of slaves. This established the first major, permanent European settlement in Southern Africa.  

• • Focus on Ndongo: The Portuguese engaged in continuous warfare against the Ndongo kingdom to expand their inland slave catchment area. The colony was primarily a massive slave-trading enterprise for centuries. The port of Luanda became the largest single point of departure for enslaved Africans destined for the Americas, particularly Brazil. Between 1580 and the 1820s, over one million people from the territory of Angola were forcibly shipped across the Atlantic.  

• • The Role of African States: Local African rulers, like those in Ndongo, Matamba, and later Kasanje, participated in the trade by selling captives taken in warfare or judicial processes to the Portuguese. This participation led to a devastating cycle of conflict and demographic loss, but it also allowed some inland states to maintain their independence from direct Portuguese rule for centuries.

The Era of Resistance: Queen Nzinga (1583 – 1663)

The 17th century was defined by continuous, often successful, African resistance, epitomized by Queen Nzinga.  

• • Nzinga’s Diplomacy and Warfare: After her brother, the Ngola of Ndongo, died, she took power and initially negotiated a peace treaty with the Portuguese in 1622, even converting to Christianity (taking the name Dona Ana de Souza). However, the Portuguese soon violated the terms. Nzinga fled, first to Kingolo and then to Matamba, where she founded a new, powerful kingdom.  

• • Alliances with the Dutch: She shrewdly allied with the Dutch, who briefly occupied Luanda (1641-1648), to push the Portuguese out of the area. After the Portuguese retook Luanda, Nzinga continued her decades-long struggle, securing a final peace treaty in 1656 that recognized the independence of Matamba.  

Limited Colonial Reach (17th – 19th Centuries)

Despite the intense focus on the slave trade, the effective control of the Portuguese remained largely limited to the coastal enclaves of Luanda and Benguela, and a few military garrisons in the immediate hinterland (like Massangano and Ambaca). The vast central plateau and eastern regions remained under the control of powerful indigenous states like the Ovimbundu kingdoms (Bailundo, Bié) and the Lunda Empire. These inland kingdoms became major hubs in the secondary, long-distance trade networks, supplying slaves and, later, ivory and rubber to the coastal ports.

3. The New Colonial Order (1836 – 1961)

The 19th and early 20th centuries saw the shift from a slave-trading economy to a system of formal colonial administration and resource extraction, culminating in the complete subjugation of Angolan territory.  

The End of the Slave Trade and Economic Transformation

The abolition of the transatlantic slave trade (Portugal abolished it in 1836, though smuggling continued) forced a transition in the colonial economy.  

• • New Exports: The focus shifted to legitimate commerce: palm and peanut oil, wax, copal, timber, ivory, cotton, and coffee. This economic shift required effective occupation of the interior to control the sources of these raw materials.  

• • Forced Labor: The void left by the abolition of slavery was filled by a brutal system of forced labor, or contrato. Africans were compelled to work for the colonial state or Portuguese settlers, often on coffee plantations in the north or on major infrastructure projects like the Benguela Railway. The system, which forced most Africans to pay a “native tax” in cash or labor, amounted to a continuation of slavery in all but name.

The Scramble for Africa and Effective Occupation

The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) compelled Portugal to prove its claim to Angolan territory through “effective occupation.”  

• • Military Campaigns: The Portuguese launched extensive and brutal military campaigns throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries to conquer and pacify the interior. Resistance was fierce, notably from the Ovimbundu in the central highlands, but superior Portuguese firepower eventually prevailed.  

• • Consolidation: By the 1920s, Portugal had finally achieved administrative control over the entire territory corresponding to modern Angola. The borders were solidified, and a unified colonial administration was put in place.  

The Estado Novo and Racial Policies

Under António de Oliveira Salazar’s authoritarian Estado Novo regime in Portugal (from the 1930s), the colonial policy was formalized.  

• • Overseas Province: In 1951, Angola was officially designated an “Overseas Province” of Portugal, rejecting the concept of self-determination and assimilation. This policy was intended to solidify Portugal’s claim against the growing international decolonization movement.  

• • The Indigenato System: The vast majority of the African population were classified as indígenas (natives) and were subject to the indigenato regime, which denied them basic rights and subjected them to forced labor and racial discrimination. A tiny minority, the assimilados, could legally ‘assimilate’ into Portuguese society by achieving specific standards of education and culture, but they were still often viewed with suspicion.  

• • Mass Immigration: Post-WWII, Portugal encouraged white settlement in Angola to cement its presence. Tens of thousands of poor Portuguese peasants and entrepreneurs migrated, displacing native Angolans from the best land and jobs, further escalating racial and economic tensions.  

4. The War of Independence (1961 – 1974)

The rise of African nationalism in the mid-20th century, coupled with the systemic oppression of the colonial regime, inevitably led to armed rebellion.

The Nationalist Movements

Three major liberation movements emerged, often divided along ethnic and ideological lines, which complicated the struggle and foreshadowed the post-independence conflict.  

1. 1. MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola):
      • • Base: Primarily Mbundu and mestiço (mixed-race) intelligentsia from the urban centers of Luanda and Benguela.  
      • • Ideology: Marxist-Leninist, aligning with the Soviet Union, Cuba, and Eastern Bloc countries.  
      • • Leader: Agostinho Neto (poet and medical doctor).  

1. 1. FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola):
      • • Base: Primarily Bakongo people from northern Angola.
      • • Ideology: Initially a conservative, anti-communist, and pan-Africanist movement, receiving support from the US and Mobutu’s Zaire (DRC).  
      • • Leader: Holden Roberto.

1. 1. UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola):
      • • Base: Largely Ovimbundu people, the country’s largest ethnic group, from the central highlands.  
      • • Ideology: Initially Maoist, later shifted to an anti-communist platform, receiving support from China, the US, and apartheid South Africa.
      • • Leader: Jonas Savimbi.  

The Beginning of the Armed Struggle

The war began in 1961 with coordinated uprisings:  

• • The Baixa de Cassanje Revolt (January 1961): An uprising by cotton plantation workers demanding better conditions was brutally suppressed.  

• • The Luanda Uprising (February 4, 1961): MPLA militants attacked prisons in Luanda, generally considered the formal start of the war.  

• • The North Uprising (March 1961): FNLA forces launched widespread attacks on plantations and settlements in the north, resulting in massacres of white settlers and African workers associated with the colonial system. The Portuguese counter-insurgency was equally brutal, leading to the deaths of tens of thousands of Angolans.  

The Protracted War (1961 – 1974)

The liberation war became part of the wider Portuguese Colonial War. Portugal steadily increased its military presence, deploying over 65,000 troops, but the nationalist forces employed effective guerrilla tactics across the vast Angolan territory. Despite fighting the Portuguese, the three main movements often fought each other for control of territory and influence, complicating their struggle for a unified front.

The Carnation Revolution and Decolonization

The war ended abruptly not through military victory, but through a political event in Europe. The Carnation Revolution in Lisbon on April 25, 1974, overthrew the authoritarian Estado Novo regime. The new military government immediately declared its intention to grant independence to the colonies.  

The Alvor Agreement (January 1975) was signed by Portugal and all three liberation movements, establishing a transitional government and setting November 11, 1975, as the date for independence. However, the deep ideological and ethnic divisions, fueled by their respective foreign backers, made the coalition unworkable. The transitional period dissolved into open conflict as the movements fought for control of the capital, Luanda, and the nation’s political future.  

5. Independence and the Angolan Civil War (1975 – 2002)

The day of independence, November 11, 1975, was not one of celebration but of conflict, as the MPLA unilaterally declared the establishment of the People’s Republic of Angola in Luanda, while the FNLA and UNITA, supported by foreign forces, continued fighting.

The Cold War Proxy Conflict

The ensuing Angolan Civil War was one of the longest and bloodiest conflicts in African history, killing an estimated 500,000 to 1.5 million people and displacing over four million. It was fundamentally a Cold War proxy war, with enormous foreign involvement:  

• • MPLA: Supported by the Soviet Union (weapons and funds), Cuba (sending tens of thousands of combat troops), and other Eastern Bloc countries.  

• • UNITA & FNLA: Supported by the United States (covert aid), Zaire/DRC, and, crucially, apartheid South Africa (which launched major invasions to prevent the establishment of a Soviet-aligned state on its border).

Phases of the Civil War

Phase 1: Conventional War and MPLA Consolidation (1975–1991)

• • Initial Fighting: In the lead-up to independence, a joint UNITA/FNLA force, backed by South African troops, advanced on Luanda. The rapid deployment of a large Cuban expeditionary force halted the advance and drove the FNLA out of the capital and northern Angola.  

• • MPLA Victory and Alignment: The MPLA secured Luanda and, with Cuban support, became the internationally recognized government. It established a one-party, Marxist-Leninist state under President Agostinho Neto (and later José Eduardo dos Santos). The FNLA essentially collapsed, while UNITA retreated to its ethnic heartland in the central highlands and the southeast, launching a long-term guerrilla war.  

• • Border Wars: The conflict became intertwined with the South African Border War (against SWAPO in Namibia). South Africa repeatedly launched deep incursions into Angolan territory to attack SWAPO bases and support UNITA. The epic Battle of Cuito Cuanavale (1987–1988), a major confrontation between Angolan/Cuban forces and South African/UNITA forces, became a turning point, contributing to negotiations for Cuban and South African withdrawal.  

Phase 2: Failed Peace and Renewed Fighting (1991–1994)

• • Bicesse Accords (1991): With the end of the Cold War, a peace agreement was reached, leading to the withdrawal of Cuban and South African forces, a multiparty election, and a shift in the MPLA’s ideology from communism to democratic socialism.  

• • 1992 Elections: The first multiparty elections were held. The MPLA won the legislative elections, and President dos Santos led the presidential count but failed to secure an outright majority. Jonas Savimbi (UNITA) refused to accept the result, claiming fraud.  

• • The “Three-Day War”: Fighting immediately resumed. The resulting post-election violence led to the killing of tens of thousands of UNITA supporters and high-ranking members in Luanda and other cities. UNITA regained much territory in the interior.

• • Lusaka Protocol (1994): Another UN-brokered peace agreement led to a new ceasefire and the formation of a Government of National Unity, but the process was slow and ultimately stalled.

Phase 3: The Final Years (1998–2002)

• • Return to War: The peace unravelled completely in 1998, with the MPLA launching a new offensive to crush UNITA. The UN peacekeeping mission withdrew.  

• • UNITA’s Demise: The military landscape shifted decisively in favor of the MPLA, which had rebuilt its army and was backed by massive oil revenues. UNITA lost key bases. The war was finally brought to an end on February 22, 2002, with the killing of UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi by government forces in Moxico province.  

6. Post-War Angola (2002 – Present)

Savimbi’s death removed the single greatest obstacle to peace. UNITA immediately signed a ceasefire and agreed to demobilize and transform into a political party.

Reconstruction and Oil Wealth

• • End of Conflict: The civil war was formally concluded, allowing for the beginning of a massive, albeit uneven, national reconstruction effort. The legacy of the war, including millions of landmines, devastated infrastructure, and a profoundly traumatized population, remains a challenge.  

• • The Oil Economy: Angola possesses vast natural resources, particularly oil (mostly offshore in Cabinda), making it one of Africa’s largest oil producers. Oil wealth has fueled economic growth and reconstruction but has also led to accusations of endemic corruption and a massive disparity between the ruling elite and the impoverished majority.  

• • Governance: The MPLA has remained the dominant political party, governing since 1975. José Eduardo dos Santos ruled from 1979 until 2017, when he stepped down and was succeeded by João Lourenço, a former defense minister and an MPLA candidate, who promised to tackle corruption.  

Contemporary Angola

Modern Angola continues to grapple with the long shadow of its history:

• • Poverty and Inequality: Despite its immense oil wealth, Angola struggles with high rates of poverty, illiteracy, and a lack of diversified economic activity. The vast majority of the population has not benefited from the country’s resource boom.  

• • Cabinda Separatism: The northern enclave of Cabinda, rich in oil and geographically separated from the rest of the country, continues to have a low-level separatist movement, the FLEC (Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda).  

• • Democratization: While political freedom has increased since the war, the MPLA maintains a firm grip on power. The 2022 general election, where the MPLA retained a majority but saw strong opposition from UNITA, highlighted the ongoing, though now political, struggle between the two historic rivals.

History of Angola’s is a powerful testament to the destructive forces of exploitation and conflict, but also a narrative of tenacious resistance and the arduous journey from colonial subjecthood to a complex, modern nation.

---

Visit : www.dkbtech.com   and www.allcircular.com