History of Antigua and Barbuda

 

The History of Antigua and Barbuda is a profound and often turbulent journey spanning millennia, reflecting the broader narrative of the Caribbean—a chronicle of successive indigenous migrations, European imperial rivalry, the brutality of the plantation system, and the eventual, hard-won rise to self-determination. The twin-island nation, though small in size, served as a crucial strategic outpost for the British Empire and a crucible for the social and political movements that shaped the modern West Indies.

Ⅰ. The Pre-Columbian and Indigenous Era (c. 2900 BC – 1493 AD)

The islands of Antigua and Barbuda were home to human societies for nearly 5,000 years before European arrival, a fact often overshadowed by the subsequent colonial history. Archaeological evidence points to at least three distinct waves of settlement, each contributing to the islands’ rich, deep-rooted heritage.

1. The Archaic Age Settlers (c. 2900 BC)

The earliest inhabitants were pre-agricultural, non-ceramic hunter-gatherers, often referred to in older literature as Siboney (or Ciboney), an Arawak word meaning “stone people.” Current archaeological nomenclature more accurately terms them the Archaic Age peoples.  

• • Lifestyle: These early groups migrated, likely from Central or South America, and established settlements like those evidenced by shell middens (accumulations of shells and refuse) at sites such as Mill Reef on Antigua. Their subsistence economy centered on coastal foraging, fishing, and hunting, utilizing beautifully crafted shell and stone tools adapted to the islands’ limestone terrain and reefs. They lived a mobile, adapted lifestyle, with radiocarbon dating placing their presence as far back as 2900 BC.

2. The Saladoid and Arawak Period (c. 100 AD – 1200 AD)

The second major wave of migration ushered in the Ceramic Age. The Saladoid people, an Arawakan-speaking group, migrated up the island chain from the Orinoco River Valley in Venezuela.  

Culture and Agriculture: The Saladoid peoples were sedentary agriculturalists skilled in pottery-making. They introduced key crops that would forever shape the region’s food security, including cassava (manioc), sweet potatoes, maize, beans, cotton, and the famous Antiguan “black” pineapple. They lived in organized villages of circular thatched huts and practiced conuco agriculture (mound-based farming). The discovery of cranial deformation in an Arawak burial dated to 750 AD provides a rare and fascinating link to cultural practices common in Central America.

3. The Kalinago (Carib) Dominance (c. 1200 AD – 1600s)

Around the 13th century, a new and more aggressive group known as the Kalinago (commonly called Caribs) arrived in the Leeward Islands, displacing the earlier Arawak-speaking communities.  

• • Nature of Settlement: While the Arawaks settled permanently, the Kalinago presence on Antigua was reportedly more intermittent, often using it as a supply and raiding base. Their excellent defensive capabilities made early Spanish settlement attempts on both islands impossible. The constant warfare and the subsequent introduction of European and African diseases, especially smallpox, rapidly decimated the indigenous populations, leading to their near-extirpation by the 17th century.

Ⅱ. In the History of Antigua and Barbuda the Era of European Rivalry and Colonization (1493 – 1674)

The transition from indigenous homeland to contested imperial territory began with a European sighting that did not immediately lead to conquest.

1. Columbus and the Spanish Claim (1493)

Christopher Columbus sighted the larger island on his second voyage in 1493, naming it Santa María de la Antigua in honor of the Church of Santa María de la Antigua in Seville, Spain. He did not land due to the island’s perceived lack of fresh water and the hostility of the Kalinago people. Spanish attempts to settle, such as the one by Don Antonio Seranno in 1520, failed.  

2. The English Foothold (1632)

After nearly a century and a half of failed attempts by various European powers, the English finally succeeded in establishing a permanent colony. In 1632, a group of English settlers from St. Kitts, led by Edward Warner (son of Sir Thomas Warner, the Governor of St. Kitts), successfully settled near Falmouth.  

• • Early Economy: The initial colony faced perpetual crisis from Carib raids, French and Dutch hostilities, and the rigors of establishing a viable settlement. The early focus was on cash crops like tobacco, indigo, cotton, and ginger.  

• • French Interruption: In 1666, the French, led by Captain d’Escambuc, briefly invaded and occupied Antigua. However, by the Treaty of Breda in 1667, the island was returned to the British, securing the English claim that would last for over three centuries.  

3. The Unique Case of Barbuda (1661 Onward)

Barbuda, the lower-lying island 28 miles north of Antigua, had a distinct trajectory. It was first colonized from Antigua in 1661. In 1685, it was leased to the Codrington family—specifically Christopher and John Codrington—who maintained an almost continuous lease on the island for nearly 200 years (until 1870).  

• • Purpose: The Codringtons intended for Barbuda to function as a provisioning and livestock-rearing colony, as well as a “slave-breeding colony,” to supply their massive sugar operations on Antigua. However, the isolation and different economy of Barbuda led the enslaved population there to develop a more self-reliant, subsistence-farming and fishing community, largely independent of the harsh plantation routine prevalent in Antigua. This difference would create a distinct identity and political separation that persists to this day.  

Ⅲ. Sugar, Slavery, and the Apex of Colonialism (1674 – 1834)

The definitive and most destructive period in Antiguan history began in 1674 with the large-scale introduction of sugar monoculture, turning Antigua into a classic example of a hierarchical, race-based, plantation society.

1. The Sugar Revolution

The arrival of Sir Christopher Codrington from Barbados was the catalyst for the Sugar Revolution. He introduced the latest technology and capital necessary for large-scale sugar cultivation.  

• • Environmental Impact: Sugar, suited to Antigua’s less mountainous terrain and volcanic soil, rapidly became the dominant crop, leading to widespread deforestation. The former rainforests, which had supplied the British Navy with timber and spars, were cleared to make way for cane fields, exacerbating the island’s perennial problem of fresh water scarcity.  

• • The Windmill Landscape: By the mid-18th century, Antigua was dotted with over 150 cane-processing windmills (like those at the Codrington’s Betty’s Hope plantation, now a museum), each marking the epicenter of a major plantation. Antigua became one of the most heavily colonized and exploited islands in the Lesser Antilles.  

2. The System of Slavery and Resistance

The profitability of sugar depended entirely on the brutal system of chattel slavery. Tens of thousands of enslaved Africans were forcibly transported from West and Central Africa to Antigua.  

• • Demographics and Hierarchy: The importation of enslaved labor created a rigid social class structure. At the apex was a tiny minority of White British planters and administrators, followed by a small middle group of free people of color and, later, Portuguese and Syrian immigrants. At the bottom was the vast, subordinate working class of Afro-Caribbean people, whose labor sustained the entire colonial economy. The high ratio of enslaved people to Europeans in the Leeward Islands created constant tension and fear among the ruling class.  

• • Organized Resistance: The brutal conditions—the long hours, the violence, the deprivation—led to persistent resistance and planned revolts. Minor uprisings occurred in 1701 and 1729. The most significant and meticulously planned revolt was uncovered in 1736. Led by an enslaved man known as Prince Klaas (also called Court), the plan was to assassinate the White planter class at a ball and establish an independent, African-led kingdom. The plot was betrayed, and the ringleaders, including Prince Klaas, Court, Tomboy, and Hercules, were subjected to horrific public executions, with many more burned alive or broken on the wheel, serving as a brutal example to the surviving enslaved population.  

3. The “Gateway to the Caribbean” (Nelson’s Dockyard)

In the 18th century, Antigua’s natural features elevated its strategic military importance. The deeply sheltered, well-protected harbor at English Harbour became the headquarters of the British Royal Navy’s Caribbean fleet.  

• • Nelson’s Presence: Facilities were greatly expanded, culminating in the construction of Nelson’s Dockyard (named after Admiral Horatio Nelson, who served there as Commander of the Northern Division of the Leeward Islands from 1784 to 1787). The Dockyard, constructed by enslaved labor and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was a crucial logistical base that allowed Britain to project power and defend its lucrative sugar colonies against the French and other rivals.  

Ⅳ. Emancipation and Economic Decline (1834 – 1939)

The 19th century was defined by a seismic legal and social shift—the end of slavery—followed by a long period of economic decline and social hardship.

1. Full Emancipation (1834)

The British Parliament passed the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833. Uniquely among the British Caribbean colonies, Antigua opted to institute immediate and full emancipation on August 1, 1834, rather than observing the four-to-six-year “apprenticeship” period mandated for other colonies.  

• • The Motive: This decision was not an act of benevolence. The planters believed that with so little unowned land on the small island, the newly freed people would have no choice but to remain working on the plantations for subsistence wages. They also hoped to save the cost of operating the apprenticeship system.

• • Consequences: While legally free, the economic conditions for Black Antiguans often changed little. They were forced to accept meager wages and faced widespread discrimination and a lack of access to fertile land or credit. The celebration of freedom, however, remains central to the Antiguan identity, commemorated today in the annual Carnival festivities.

2. Economic and Natural Shocks

The post-emancipation period was marked by crisis. The sugar industry in the British West Indies began to wane under competition from beet sugar and larger, more efficient producers like Cuba.  

• • Natural Disasters: Economic turmoil was worsened by natural disasters: a massive earthquake in 1843 and a devastating hurricane in 1847 caused severe infrastructural and economic damage. The decline led to the final closure of Nelson’s Dockyard in 1889 and the withdrawal of the British Navy.  

• • Barbuda’s Reversion: The Codrington family’s lease on Barbuda finally ended in 1870, and the island reverted to the Crown. Its administration was increasingly tied to Antigua, making it a dependency—a decision that was historically contested by Barbudans who felt economically stifled and politically marginalized by the larger island.

3. Political and Social Stratification

Despite the end of slavery, the political system remained controlled by the wealthy White elite. The colonial administration functioned as a Crown Colony, leaving the Afro-Caribbean population without meaningful political power. The early 20th century saw a continuation of hardship, culminating in the 1918 Wages and Labour Riots, which underscored the deep, festering discontent over low wages and poor working conditions.  

Ⅴ. The Rise of Labour and the Nationalist Movement (1939 – 1981)

The Great Depression and a severe drought in the 1930s exacerbated the poverty and civil unrest, leading to the pivotal development of a powerful labor movement that would become the engine of political change.

1. The Birth of the Union and the Party

A specially appointed British Commission investigating the unrest recommended the establishment of a trade union. This led to the formation of the Antigua Trades and Labour Union (ATLU) in 1939.  

• • V.C. Bird’s Ascendancy: The ATLU found its most powerful leader in Vere Cornwall Bird Sr., who became president in 1943. Bird, a powerful orator and charismatic figure, understood that true change required political power.  

• • The Antigua Labour Party (ALP): In 1946, the political arm of the ATLU, the Antigua Labour Party (ALP), was formed. The goals of the party were clear: use the strength of the labor movement to achieve political representation and dismantle the remaining colonial structures.  

2. Constitutional Evolution and Self-Government

The ALP successfully campaigned for constitutional reforms, culminating in the achievement of universal adult suffrage (with no income or literacy requirements) by 1951. This victory fundamentally shifted the balance of power, putting the islands’ political fate in the hands of the majority Black working class.  

• • Chief Minister: V.C. Bird rose to prominence, becoming the first Chief Minister of the Antiguan Parliament in 1961.  

• • Federation and Dissolution: Antigua and Barbuda were part of the short-lived West Indies Federation (1958–1962). Following its collapse, Antigua, determined to pursue self-rule, entered into negotiations with the UK.  

• • Associated Statehood (1967): On February 27, 1967, Antigua (including Barbuda and Redonda) became an Associated State of the United Kingdom under the West Indies Act. This granted the islands full internal self-government, with Britain retaining responsibility only for external affairs and defense. Bird, now Premier, led the ALP through this transition.

3. The Push for Independence and Political Rivalry

The 1970s saw the rise of a powerful independence movement. The political landscape was dominated by the intense rivalry between the ALP (led by V.C. Bird, who supported regional integration) and the Progressive Labour Movement (PLM), led by George Walter (Premier from 1971–1976), who strongly advocated for complete and immediate independence.  

• • The Barbuda Question: The path to independence was complicated by the unique position of Barbuda. Feeling economically neglected and administratively dominated by Antigua, the Barbuda People’s Movement (BPM) sought to secede before independence, fearing that self-rule under Antiguan control would solidify their dependency. The issue was a major obstacle in the autonomy talks.  

Ⅵ. Independence and the Bird Dynasty (1981 – 2004)

After decades of political struggle, Antigua and Barbuda finally achieved the ultimate goal of sovereignty.  

1. History of Antrigua and Barbuda Independence (November 1, 1981)On November 1, 1981, Antigua and Barbuda achieved full independence from the United Kingdom.  

• • First Prime Minister: Vere Cornwall Bird Sr. became the first Prime Minister of the new nation. The state opted to remain a constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth, with the British monarch represented by a Governor-General. The nation adopted the motto: “Each Endeavoring, All Achieving.”  

• • International Membership: The newly sovereign state joined the United Nations, the Commonwealth, and the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS).  

2. The Dominance of the Bird Family

The first two decades of independence were defined by the political dominance of the Antigua Labour Party and the Bird family, often referred to as the “Bird Dynasty.”  

• • Vere Bird Sr. (1981–1994): The founding father provided a degree of political stability and was instrumental in developing the nascent tourism industry, which replaced the now-defunct sugar industry (which officially closed in 1971) as the economic mainstay.  

• • Lester Bird (1994–2004): Vere Bird Sr. was succeeded by his son, Lester Bird, who continued the ALP’s rule.

3. Scandals and Controversies

Despite providing stability, the Bird governments were frequently beset by allegations of corruption, cronyism, and financial malfeasance.  

• • The Arms Scandal: The most notable scandal involved Vere Bird Jr., the elder son of the patriarch, who was forced to leave the cabinet in 1990 following accusations of smuggling Israeli weapons to Colombian drug traffickers. These intermittent crises created a negative international reputation, leading the country to acquire a reputation as a “somewhat lax tax haven.”  

Ⅶ. Modern Antigua and Barbuda (2004 – Present)

The early 21st century marked a significant political shift and new economic and environmental challenges.

1. Political Change and the UPP Interlude (2004–2014)

The Antigua Labour Party’s decades-long political dominance finally ended in the 2004 general election.  

• • Winston Baldwin Spencer: The United Progressive Party (UPP), led by Winston Baldwin Spencer, won the election, ending the Bird dynasty’s rule and ushering in a decade of governance focused on reform and addressing corruption.

2. The Return of the ABLP and Environmental Crises (2014–Present)

The political pendulum swung back in 2014, with the Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP)—the successor to the ALP—returning to power under the leadership of Gaston Browne, who became the country’s fourth Prime Minister.

• • Hurricane Irma (2017): The country faced one of its gravest natural disasters when Hurricane Irma, a Category 5 storm, devastated the island of Barbuda in September 2017, destroying approximately 90% of the island’s infrastructure and forcing the total evacuation of its population to Antigua. The catastrophic event brought the longstanding and contentious political relationship between the two islands into sharp focus, with disputes over land ownership (Barbuda traditionally adheres to a communal land tenure system) and reconstruction funding.

• • Economic Strategy: Today, the economy remains heavily reliant on tourism, which accounts for a significant portion of the GDP. The government has also actively promoted the Citizenship by Investment Program (CIP) to attract foreign direct investment.

3. Historical Legacy and Preservation

Modern Antigua and Barbuda cherishes its heritage. Key efforts include the preservation of its cultural and historic sites:

• • Nelson’s Dockyard: The designation of Nelson’s Dockyard and the surrounding area as an UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2016 solidified the importance of its 18th-century naval history.  

• • Cultural Identity: The nation’s culture is a vibrant blend of its African, British, and indigenous past, with English as the official language and a majority Christian population. The development of a unique folk pottery tradition and the annual Carnival rooted in emancipation history continue to define the Antiguan and Barbudan identity, reflecting the nation’s motto and its long history of struggle and achievement.

The History of Antigua and Barbuda is, therefore, a compact microcosm of the entire Caribbean story: a clash of civilizations, the rise and fall of a monolithic economy, a foundation built on enslaved labor, and the ultimate triumph of self-governance driven by the relentless will of its people.

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